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Evolution of Chinese Architecture
Architecture mirrors the material and aesthetic standards
of a society. Classical Chinese architecture is no exception.
It is interesting to see how the ancient buildings were
developed, with their unique timber structures and decorative
styles.
Primitive people lived in natural caves before they
learned to build houses. The earliest primitive shelter
found in China belonged to Peking Man who existed between
a million and 300,000 years ago.
As human intelligence increased, primitive people learned
to excavate caves as their homes. Such cave dwellings
were called "den residence" by the ancient
historians, and many remain in use in the Loess Plateau
of north and northwest China.
Gradually, primitive people also learned to make dwellings
out of branches and thatch, which were called "nest
residence". Chinese mythology ascribed the invention
of such dwellings to a demigod named Youchaoshi. Archaeological
finds showed that there were mainly two types of "nest"
dwellings in neolithic China: one was constructed over
a shallow pit, the other on a platform of poles.
The pit-sthle houses, square or circular in shape,
used the inside bank of the pit as the walls and one
or several thick pillars to prop up the walls;
earth was rammed around them. This also helped to prevent
the wood from catching fire. (TOP)
The platform-style houses existed mainly in the Yangtse
River basin and southern China. Some ethnic minorities
still live in this kind of house, constructed on upright
pillars. But it is amazing that the primitive people
used stone tools to make the beams and purlins and even
chiselled out mortises and tenons to secure the joints
of the beams. Evidence of this was found in the Hemudu
Ruins in Yuyao, Zhejiang Province, which were 7,000
years old. For centuries, the "nest residence"
prevailed over the "den residence" and became
the dominant trend of ancient Chinese architecture.
The use of timber framework and the invention of mortises
and tenons formed the prototype of classical buildings
in ancient China.
During the slave society of the Xia and Shang dynasties
(21st-11th century BC), houses varied according to the
caste of the inhabitants. Most slaves still lived in
pit-style houses. The slave owners lived in much better,
on-the-ground houses with rammed earth walls. Their
houses had one or more rooms, and the earth floors were
hard and smooth after being heated by fire. Some slave
owners not only demanded human sacrifices for burials
but also buried the slaves as sacrifices below their
houses. Unearthed so far, the grandest structure of
the slave period is a palace built in the early Shang
Dynasty at Erlitou, Yanshi County, Henan Province. The
buildings stood on a 10,000-square-metre terrace of
rammed earth. In the middle was an eight-bay wide, three-bay
deep palatial hall with a hipped roof and double eaves.
The main gate was on the southern side of the terrace
encircled by galleries. (TOP)
The Western Zhou Dynasty (1066-771 BC) saw a marked
development in architecture in ancient China. Members
of the royal family and aristocrats were granted land
on which they could set up their feudal states. As a
result, building activities increased. Excavation of
early Zhou palace sites in Qishan, Shaanxi, indicates
that a pattern had evolved with main buildings, porches,
the front and back courtyards all on a single axis.
Roofing material also improved with the advent of earth
tiles, which were used to cover the ridge and gutters.
People plastered the rammed walls and floors with a
mixture of soil, lime and sand, which gives a hard and
smooth surface. They also learned to make the north
walls of their houses thicker than the rest to resist
the strong and cold winds. But a significant architectural
development of theis period was the invention of corbel
brackets, called dougong in Chinese, which are
inserted on column heads to support the projecting eaves.
These later became a unique feature of classical Chinese
architecture.
In the next few hundred years the economy and commerce
thrived. The construction of elevated terraces became
popular as the rulers of each feudal state used "lofty
terraces and magnificent palaces" to flaunt their
wealth and power. This craze for architectural grandeur
culminated during the reign of Emperor Qinshihuang,
the first emperor of ancient China who unified the country
in 221 BC.
The Qin ruler, who was also associated with the building
of the Great Wall, and the massive terracotta army in
Xi'an. It was so gigantic and extravagant that when
the peasant rebels burned it, the fire ragged for three
weeks. The erecting imperial palaces on elevated terraces
continued in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911 AD), as seen
in the Forbidden City. (TOP)
Architects of the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD) demonstrated
very sophisticated techniques. Corbel brackets were
widely used. Meanwhile multi-storied buildings appeared
and many different roof styles evolved, such as the
gabled roof, hipped roof, and double-eaved roof, all
featuring sweeping slopes with upturned eaves and tilted
corners. The large overhangs were merely for artistic
effect but functional, keeping out the rain and sunlight.
The making of bricks as a building material also occurred
in the Han Dynasty some 2,000 years ago. One engraved
tomb brick found in Sichuan Province illustrates the
residence of an aristocrat which consisted of several
courtyards separated by galleries.
The Tang Dynasty was a period of great prosperity.
Construction of palaces, Buddhist temples and pagodas
flourished. The ancient people began to use glazed tiles
and carved stones in bulding. Brick walls were common
in Tang structure, but this did not change the unique
and prominent feature of the classical Chinese architecture-the
timber framework composed of columns, beams, purlins
and a multitude of corbel brackets. There is an old
saying: "The walls may topple down but the roof
won't collapse", meaning the function of a wall
is not to support the weight of the roof but to separate
the space. Because of this, windows and doors could
be made in the walls freely without causing the building
to collapse.
Another advantage of the structures lies in the fact
that the buildings are earthquake-resistant. This accounted
for the preservation of many centuried-old structure
in quake-proof areas such as the Foguang (Buddha Light)
Temple in the Wutai Mountains, built in 857; and the
67.31-metre high wooden pagoda of Yingxian in Shanxi.
Built in 1056, it is the oldest surviving timber pagoda
in China and the tallest timber building in the world.
The thriving economy of the Tang Dynasty also led to
a building rivalry among aristocrats and wealthy officials.
The imperial court finally had to stipulate standards
of residential construction according to social status.
For instance, it ruled that officials under the rank
of duke were not entitled to houses with double-arched
ceilings;officials below the third class (ancient officials
were divided roughly into nine classes) were confined
to five-bay houses; the common people could only build
three-bay houses. Private households were not allowed
to construct towers overlooking other people's residences.
But the Tang emperors themselves indulged in building
a gigantic and magnificent capital, and Chang'an (now
Xi'an) was constructed according to an ambitious layout
that was copied in varying degrees by late dynasties,
even spreading its influence to the ancient Japanese
capitals of Kyoto and Nara. (TOP)
Architectural art reached an advanced level in the
Song Dynasty (960-1279) when more and more elegant flexible
designs were created, featuring polygonal, multi-eaved
roofs, intricate ceiling structures, finely carved doors,
windows, colunms and brackets. Lattices on windows and
doors also became popular in the period. These are more
than ornamental for they facilitate the mounting of
paper to admit light. Glass was not introduced to China
until very late.
The building techniques of stone and brick structures
grew very sophisticated in the Song period, as it manifested
by the appearance of a number of vaulted beamless structures
built entirely of bricks and stones. The most well-known
beamless hall is Wuliangdian in Nanjing's Linggu Temple,
built in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644).
In the Ming and Qing dynasties timber shortages gave
birth to jointing and paneling techniqies, by which
huge columns and beams could be made out of small fragments
of wood. Meanwhile, beams and columns were connected
directly, thus simplifying the superstructure and relegating
brackets to ornamental adjuncts on the eaves. However,
the simple timber structure did not prevent the architects
of the time from making their builings opulent. In face,
the Ming and Qing palaces represented the culmination
of architectural extravagance, mainly through the extensive
use of yellow glazed tiles, purple-red walls, while
marble balustrades, ornate wood, stone and metal carvings,
gilding, lacquering, painting and inlaying.
The Forbidden City in Beijing is noted for its magnificent
buildings and dignified layout. First built in the early
15th century, the enclosed city occupied an area of
720,000 square metres and has 9,999 rooms (nine was
deemed an auspicious number). The main hall, built on
a seven-metre high podium finished in white marble,
sit on a single axis. (TOP)
In the Ming and Qing periods, the art of garden making
flourished. Not only the emperors but the rich and powerful,
too, lavished money on building private gardens and
resorts. The best of them include the Summer Palace
and Yuanmingyuan (the Old Summer Palace) in northwest
Beijing, and numerous resorts in Chengde, Hebei Province.
These featured harmonious landscaped, and many exquisite
pagodas, pavilions, halls and bridges.
Private gardens built by the wealthy were compact and
delicate, particularly those in the southern cities
of Suzhou, Hangzhou, Wuxi and Yangzhou. These offer
as many views as possible within a limited space. There
the tourist can see grotesque rockery formations, lotus-covered
ponds crossed by elegant bridges, graceful miniature
pagodas and richly-decorated pavilions.
Nowadays, China's classical architecture is mainly
preserved and reproduced for nostalgic reasons to enhance
tourism. Its unique designs and decorative techniques
are valuable and can be used in modern architecture.
Garden Architecture
Garden architecture is an important part of ancient
architecture in Beijing. Beginning in the 11th century,
the Liao Dynasty emperors had their temporary palaces
built around the Western Hills. By the end of the 12th
century, the Jin Dynasty emperors began to develop the
scenic spot of the Fragrant Hills, which became a favourite
resort for the later emperors. In the Yuan Dynasty (1271-1368).
Taiyechi (now Beihai Park), and Wanshoushan (Longevity
Hill) presently Qionghua Islet in Beihai Park were set
as imperial garden. In the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644),
Garden of Marvelous Hill was built on the present site
of the Summer Palace. The classical gardens that have
been preserved were mostly built during the Qing Dynasty
(1644-1911). Examples of these are the Imperial Garden,
Emperor Qianlong's Garden in the Forbidden City, Studio
of Mental Tranquility, and those scattered around the
northwestern suburbs including Changchunyuan (situated
in the present-day Beijing University), Yuanmingyuan,
Jingmingyuan, Jingyiyuan, and Qingyiyuan.
Beijing's classical gardens were built according to
their respective natural topography in various delicate
shapes and ingenious layout. They are unique in style
in two respects: Being vivacious, appealing, natural
and unrestrained, much impact of garden architecture
from the southern provinces can be found. On the other
hand, they are sedate and spacious, featuring the official
constructions of the north.
In the old days, the classical gardens of Beijing were
forbidden imperial areas, or private properties of dignitaries.
Nowadays, most of them have been turned into parks and
special funds have been allocated by the People's Government
for the repair of these ancient garden architectures.
Mausoleum Architecture
Mausoleum architecture accounts for a major part in
ancient Chinese architecture. Mausoleums in and around
Beijing include the Ming Tombs, and the Imperial East
and West Mausoleums of the Qing Dynasty. The general
layout of the Ming and Qing mausoleums are roughly the
same. They are built against the mountain and divided
by valleys along which walls are erected. A stone monument
stands in front of the deceased emperor, ornamental
columns and stone figures of men and animals are arranged
on both sides of the Sacred Way inside the gate. A stone
bridge proceeds the roads leading to separate tombs.
In each tomb area, there are a number of constructions,
including the Dragon and Phoenix Gate, a tablet, the
Gate of Eminent Favours, the Hall of Eminent Favours,
the side halls, the Soul Tower, the grave mound and
subterranean constructions with the underground palace
as the main part. Mausoleums of the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644)
are magnificent, while those of the Qing Dynasty are
carefully built. The Hall of Eminent Favours of Changling
Tomb, the tomb of Zhu Di is similar in scale to the
Hall of Supreme Harmony in the Forbidden City. Among
the surface constructions in the Qing mausoleums, the
tomb of Empress Dowager Cixi is the most fastidiously
built.
Within the past few hundred years, some of the imperial
mausoleums had repeatedly been plundered. After 1949
imperial mausoleums were decreed cultural relics under
special preservation, and renovations of the art of
ancient Chinese architecture and many of them are open
to the public as tourist spots. (TOP)
Religious Architecture
Religious constructions can be found all over Beijing.
They are those that survived the sabotage of the imperialistis
and warlords from 1840-1949. These religious constructions
consist mainly of temples of Buddhism, Lamaism, Islamism,
and Taoism. They differ in layouts of buildings, ways
of groupings, systems of coloured paintings and themes
of engravings, according to the different religious
doctrines and requirements of usages. They are also
different from other kinds of structures. Portraits
of Buddhas, murals, engraved tablets, calligraphy, Buddhist
utensils, furnishings, and Buddhist scriptures are carefully
kept in those constructions. They are important cultural
relics or art treasures of high value. The people's
government has paid much attention to religious architecture.
After the founding of New China, a special organization
was set up to protect and renovate cultural relics and
historical sites. In 1961, Regulations Regarding the
Pretection of National Key Cultural Relic units and
put under appropriate protection. In recent years, to
facilitate religious activities, special funds have
been allocated by the government and many temple repaired.
Some temples in Beijing have been opened as tourist
sites. (TOP)
Residence with Quadrangle Courtyards
Old Beijing residence are featured by quadrangly courtyards.
Nowadays, many inhabitants are still living in such
specially shaped houses.
A quadrangle courtyard refers to an enclosure with
rooms on four sides, each which is occupied by a unit
of a few rooms. The four sides are linked by covered
corridors. The enclosure is compact and cosy and is
endowed with marked national style. In the past, one
such courtyard accommodated a single household. The
allocation of the rooms kept abreast with the feudal
patriarchal codes; The principal rooms, usually facing
the south, high-ceilinged and well-furnished, were occupied
by the head of the household; the rooms along the east
and west sides of the courtyard were for their off-springs;
rooms for women were behind the principal rooms, and
called "Xiufang" or "Xiulou" (boudoir
or a woman's bedroom); the rooms facing the north were
generally used as the study or the parlour. The main
entrance opened at the southeastern corner of the courtyard
and the lavatory at the southwestern. The rooms facing
the north were divided from the principal courtyard
by a whitewashed wall on which a decorated gate opened
so that the inner chambers for womenfolk were alleged
to be cut off from outside intrusion.
The quadrangle courtyards are divided into large, medium,
and small ones in scale. When two side-courtyards are
arranged on both sides of the principal one and all
the courtyards are linked by covered corridors or screens,
a medium-scale quadrangle is formed. If developed on
both sides and in depth at the same time, the result
will be a large-scale quadrangle. A large-scale quadrangle
has a few layers of courtyards on the axis and side-courtyards
on both sides, as well as installations like the ancestral
hall, the stable, and rooms for servants. It is comprised
of parlours, banquet halls, drawing rooms, studies,
and bed chambers etc. Many of such top-class residences
can be found in Beijing.
(TOP)
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